Political economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Political economy - Essay Example According to the history of economics, political economy is a terminology that was originally used to describe the processes of production and trade in various goods and services, as well as their associations with the law, custom and the government. The government came into the picture because of its key objective to its citizens- that is distribution of national income and wealth to all people in all its regions within its boundaries. The term political economy is said to have found its origin in the 18th century, during this time, it was referred to as the study of states or polities, and hence its present name – political economy. Following this historical development, it is evident that political economy in modern times deals with the way governments makes decisions on distribution of income and wealth to its citizens to spur growth and development. In addition, political economics looks at how various political forces play a role shaping various economic policies of a country, especially with regard to distributional conflicts relating resources and management of political institutions. It examines how governments make their overall expenditure, investing in various sectors with an objective of improving the citizens’ well being. In general, there are multiple components to economic systems that are characteristics of different countries, it is important to have this understanding since the interaction of these different economic systems can be coherent or result in some kinds of instabilities. The process of decision making over various economic factors determines the use of economic inputs, which comprise of factors of production, distribution of the resulting output, the level and extent of centralization in the process of decision-making as well as those who make the particular decisions. Decisions regarding economic factors and their characteristics can be carried out and effected by

Torture Techniques Essay -- Essays Papers

Torture Techniques Throughout every period in history, people in society have been driven by panic and hysteria to use their faith in God as a reason to accuse, torture, and murder countless innocent people. Events in this cycle of inhumanity account for some of the darkest stains in human history. All forms of torture and punishment served as the primary means of forcing accused, inocent individuals to confess their involvement in the alleged occurrences and to reveal the names of accomplices. Throughout history, various forms of spiritual rituals, public humiliation, and pain induction, have been used to extract these false confessions from innocent individuals. Accused heretics could be punished through spiritual purification rituals performed by the church. After being accused of being a heretic, the church considered the body and soul of that individual to be corrupted, filthy, and possessed by the deviled. Because of this, the accused would have to undergo a harsh cleansing of the body and soul. The body would be washed with fire, boiling water, and rags made from harsh material. To cleanse the soul of the individual, he or she would be forced to swallow substances meant to eliminate evil spirits. The church accomplished this by forcing the accused to swallow scalding water, fire brands, coals, and soaps. This ritual evolved into the present day concept of washing the mouth out with soap.1 Severe public humiliation was another method of extracting confessions out of accused individuals. The most common and recognizable form of public humiliation was the stocks or pillories. With the head and hands fixed in the stocks, the accused was put on display for the entire village to jest, insult, and throw things at. Many ... ... http://www2.cybercities.com/s/shanmonster/witch/ (28 February 1999) - Michael Norton, "Townsfolk Kill Five People of Witchcraft," Associated Press, 23 January 1996. Bibliography - Dispelling Witches. Directed by Marnie Villari, 50 min. A&E Networks, 1993. Videocassette. - Malbrough, Ray. Charms Spells and Formulas. St. Paul, Minnesota: Llewellyn Publications, 1996. - Norton, Michael. "Townsfolk Kill Five People of Witchcraft," Associated Press, 23 January 1996. - Powell, Shantell. "Punishment, Torture, and Ordeal," The Witching Hours, 25 October 1998. http://www2.cybercities.com/s/shanmonster/witch/witches/grandier.html/ (28 February 1999). - Torture and death penalty instruments from the Middle Ages to the Industrial Era, http://www.cecut.org.mx/GALERIA/tortura/torture.htm (3 March 1999).

Canadian Branch plant economies Essay

Modern industrial organizations in Canada are synonymous with the branch plant economy phenomenon. In general, â€Å"the term branch plant economy refers to a convenient shorthand term to describe a regional economy where a large proportion of the employees are in establishments owned by firms whose head office lies outside the region† (Watts 1). In Canada, branch plant economies are subsidiaries of companies based abroad, mostly in the U.S. A branch plant economy is a strategic tool used by transnational corporations to maximize profits, avoid tariff fees and encourage exports. â€Å"Branch plant economies have been established in Canada for two essential purposes; the first is to gain access to the domestic Canadian market and the second is to gain access to Canada’s primary products† (Laxer 127). Specifically, this paper will discuss the evolution of the branch plant economy and its negative and positive effects on the Canadian auto industry and its implications on regional development. Branch plant economies exist where investment and business strategy decisions are made by an international head office of a company and not by the company itself. These economies have the traditional hierarchical model of corporate organization with strong centralized co-ordination of individual plants and subsidiaries. The private capital from international investors, mainly the United Kingdom, has always played an important part in the development of industrial countries, especially Canada. These investments not only brought money, supplies and equipment to Canada but also mass migration from the investing countries. Canada was and still remains an excellent source of primary products for many migrants and their home countries. Canada served as a primary product producing country connected to an external controller, originally the United Kingdom, but now mainly the United States. This condition has remained unchanged to this day. This philosophy has also remained imbedded in Canadian business attitudes and Canada’s macroeconomic sector since Confederation and is unlikely to change. â€Å"After the end of the Second World War almost fifty five percent of the  manufacturing in Canada was being done by foreign owned branch plants† (http://www. Canadainternationalbureauofstatistics/dominion/quart/dev/icj.html October 23, 2001). A majority of these were American owned. The phenomenon known as the branch plant economy was now evolving in Canada. As the American economy expanded in the 1950’s and 1960’s so too did the branch plants in Canada. â€Å"In 1965 George Grant, a writer, wrote a book called Lament for a Nation in which he believed that Canada’s potential for greatness had sadly passed† (http://www.Johnaboutcanada.com November 1, 2001.). Canada had switched gears to a branch plant economy all for a small piece of the American dream. This overwhelming  desire of Canadians to acquire a piece of the American dream became the target of certain jokes in the global economic community. Apparently, if a country has the potential to be overrun with foreign corporations, they call it the Canadian disease. â€Å"As the 1970’s began Canada was deindustrializing. In the 1970’s research on externally controlled branch plant economies stated that they lacked managerial authority and were functionally truncated† (http://www.Canadainternationalbureauofst atistics/dominion/quart/dev/icj.html October 23, 2001). Branch plant economies concentrated on production activities while more important actions such as research and development were expanded and conducted elsewhere within the parent firm. The result was that these branch plant economies were more likely to be deficient in high skilled occupations and technologically dependent thereby lacking innovative and entrepreneurial activity. Branch plants were also associated with lack of linkages with local companies and their vulnerability to closure during times of economic uncertainty. Canadian economists believe a high concentration of branch plant economies would be detrimental to the long-term development of the regional economy. â€Å"As the 1970’s came to a close Canada reached an all time low with only nineteen percent of Canadians being employed in the manufacturing sector† (http://www.Canadainternationalbureauofstatistics/dominion/quart/dev/icj.html October 23, 2001). Currently, Canada is economically heavily dependent on larger economic countries for research and development and new technologies. Canada also has always been dependent on the extraction of its primary products for export to other countries. â€Å"As far back as 1963 as much as sixty percent of the manufacturing industry was owned by firms whose head office lay outside the region or in foreign countries† (www.Statisticscanada/local/stateprov/ont.html. October 5, 2001). The Canadian auto industry is a model case study of a branch plant economy. The auto industry’s rich history dates back to the beginning of the twentieth century where a bright young entrepreneur named Sam McLaughlin who initially was an apprentice in his father’s carriage workshop went into the automobile manufacturing business with his brother and father. By l9l8, with increasing competition in the North American automobile industry, McLaughlin decided to sell his firm to the recently organized General Motors Company, owned by Durrant and associates. Thus, McLaughlin’s company became a Canadian subsidiary of General Motors, with McLaughlin as president and as vice-president of the American company. During this process, the Oshawa plant gained the distinction of being â€Å"the center† of General Motor’s production in Canada. Prior to the depression of the 1930’s Canada was manufacturing hundreds of thousands of cars per year. Canada was a tool in the American plight which would introduce Canadian built American cars not only to Canada but also the whole British Commonwealth. For a brief period this actually worked well propelling the Canadian auto industry to international recognition. Unfortunately the ugly head of the great depression surfaced and the era of prosperity ceased. â€Å"It was not till the end of the Second World War that the Canadian auto industry had become a branch plant economy with major American auto makers producing vehicles in Canada for the Canadian domestic market (Laxer 130)†. Many countries established productive auto industries after the Second World War; unfortunately Canada was manufacturing too many types of cars for its relatively small markets to become productive. â€Å"The problem was endemic to branch plant industry. It was known as the miniature replica effect. Every multinational company from every type of industry established its own production operation in Canada to avoid Canada’s tariff laws (Laxer 130,131)†. Canada wanted desperately to rectify this situation so Diefenbaker ordered that a Royal Commission be conducted to determine Canada’s options and to change its current state. Diefenbaker appointed economist Vincent Bladen to conduct an inquiry into the Canadian auto industry. Bladen made recommendations which influenced many developments one of which led up to the Canadian-US auto pact. The Auto Pact was established in 1965 to facilitate free trade in cars and parts for the American owned auto manufacturers which were at that time known as the Big Four: GM, Ford, Chrysler and American Motors. The Auto Pact agreement was that these four U.S. corporations would make guarantee new investments in Canada and would maintain  assembly operations in Canada in at least the same ratio to Canadian sales as in 1964. In return, the Canadian government removed all duties on cars and parts imported by these companies. â€Å"Under the terms of the Canada-United States Automotive Products Agreement of 1965, qualified motor vehicle manufacturers are able to import both vehicles and original equipment automotive parts duty-free from any Most Favoured Nation country, provided the following performance requirements, are met: The value of vehicles produced in Canada must meet or exceed a specified proportion of the manufacturer’s annual sales in Canada. In other words, if manufacturers want to sell imported cars duty-free in Canada they must also build cars in Canada. Assemblers must maintain, on an annual basis, a nominal dollar amount of Canadian value added in assembly activity of at  least that reached in 1964. Canadian value added in Canadian vehicle assembly includes direct and indirect labour, depreciation on Canadian-made machinery, eligible overhead and other expenses that can be reasonably allocated to the cost of producing the vehicles, and the Canadian value added in Canadian made parts and materials used in assembly. Inflation has rendered this requirement insignificant† (http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/SSG/am00540e.html). During the 1970s, three events dramatically changed the world automotive industry and in particular the North American industry: the oil embargo of 1973 and 1974, the Iranian oil crisis of 1979, and the emergence of Japan as one of the world’s largest  producers of motor vehicles. Nixon wanted to offset this and secure the American auto industry and therefore implemented the Domestic International Sales Corporations. â€Å"This was a low tax entity through which American products would be exported abroad. The plan provided a tax break for American domestic industry to increase its exports. Its purpose was to keep American jobs in America (Laxer 135)†. Since Canada had the most concentration of branch plants, which were American owned, this severely affected Canada. The Ontario government study of the auto pact agreement concurred that three problems existed affecting the auto industry as follows: the inability for the auto industry to enhance productivity, the consistent loss of Canada’s overall market distribution of the auto assembly activity and the overwhelming intensification of the parts trade deficit. The Domestic International Sales Corporation plan implemented by Richard Nixon encouraged companies to locate in the United States and provided them with lucrative incentives. Since the inception of the Auto Pact, Canada and the United States have created a single North American market for vehicles. The Auto Pact allowed for the rationalization of the North American market for vehicle production. Since signing the Auto Pact, the Canadian automotive industry has enjoyed unprecedented growth production where  automotive manufacturing employment has increased 200% and automotive shipments grew from $2.2 billion in 1964 to $70.7 billion in 1995. Canadian economists and the  Canadian autoworkers union view the Auto pact agreement as a savior from the small Canadian market and probably the only feasible way of offsetting the huge trade deficit. Others believe the benefits of the Auto Pact have all gone to U.S. imperialism. The subjugation of the Canadian economy to U.S. imperialism increased as a result of the pact and trade deficits increased. Canada also surrendered any possible initiative to try and create its very own all Canadian car which would have been made and sold exclusively in Canada. Branch plant economies have always had a negative connotation. Any debates always raise concerns about the potentially negative consequences for regional development because of a high degree of external control by multinational firms. It is precisely this concentration of control activities either overseas or in one region that influences a region’s economic performance. This influence on regional growth is manifested through various means. One is employment, specifically the job mix and job stability in a region and the second is technological change. Most branch plant economies are small inefficient firms that are incapable of promoting overall local development. Branch plant economies act more like an export platform which merely exist to extract valuable raw materials for export. They have little  effect on the local economy in terms of encouraging self-reliant economic growth. Branch plant economies often use capital-intensive low labour technology which does not  generate many new jobs for the local economy. Multinational corporations with branch plants in Canada tend to take their profits from the subsidiary and  send it back to the corporate headquarters in their home country rather than reinvesting it in the local Canadian economy by additional hiring of personnel or by contribution to the infrastructure. Since they are in the same business or a derivative of such as their parent company it is easier for them to maintain their competitive edge without having to liberally invest in research as their indigenous counterparts. Simply put these multinational companies take more money out of the Canada than they put in. The managerial autonomy in branch plants is minimal with dependent positions. Higher functions such as research, development and marketing are centralized within a group. The importance of the branch plant economy within a parent group is marginal or even non-existent and the quality of employment is mainly low skilled jobs, including part time and temporary positions. The link of the branch plant to the host economy is limited and the former is always vulnerable to closure, downsizing or restructuring. The worst negative effect of branch plant economies are that they have created close ties with local government and banks to gain superior access to local finance. These ties allow multinational corporations to acquire the majority of investment capital which  deters the rise of indigenous entrepreneurship. Branch plant economies have been directly accountable for Canada’s astronomical trade deficit because American branch plants have  been sucking the economic lifeblood from Canada for generations. Virtually any profits or technologies generated by Canadian workers ultimately are sent back to the United States. Presently multinational corporations are under increased pressure to lower costs because of the increased import competition from low wage countries, additional opportunities to invest in low wage countries and increasing technological change. While branch plants have played an historical role in Canada, there is a sense that these plants are more susceptible to the changes in foreign trade, foreign direct investment and technological change. Liberal economists or realists admit there are certainly some negative effects of the branch plant economy, yet they strongly believe that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages. They believe that foreign ownership and direct investment can be seen as instruments for development in that branch plant economies bring in productive new technological advances that provide an economic boost for Canada. Branch plants have traditionally played a large role in rural economies and rural economic development strategies as they have provided good stable jobs with relatively high wages and full benefits. In fact, large, multinational corporations generally look to rural areas for low wageworkers and favorable business climates. â€Å"The productivity difference between branch plants and single-unit home owned plants has increased by 57 percent between 1967 and 1992 (Watts 54)†. On average, branch plants in southern Ontario pay higher wages and are more productive than single-unit plants. This relationship holds nationally as well. The trend in wages is somewhat different. There is a large increase in the wage premiums of branch plant economies in 1982, but then it declines over the 1982 to 1992 period. Moreover, by controlling the industry and location type, we can conclude that branch plants are concentrated in more productive, higher paying industries and tend to be located in urbanized areas of the region. Other positive data relating to the branch plant economy comes from recent information which states that â€Å"the classic symptoms of the branch plant syndrome could be alleviated by organizational changes within large corporations (http://www.Entrepreneurstrategist/figure/nnt/odb.html October 11, 2001)†. Specifically, recent decentralization of managerial authority and functional responsibilities within some large corporations has led to improvements in the quality of branch plants. Consequently, branch plant economies have changed substantially over the past two decades and the negative connotation which is associated with the branch plant may no longer be an accurate representation. â€Å"A recent study shows that foreign-owned subsidiaries spend a greater proportion of revenues on research and development than their homegrown competitors. Furthermore, a United Nations study dispels the myth that Canada is one of the foremost branch-plant economies. Canada actually ranked ninth among developed nations in 1997 (http://www.Unitednationsstatistics/worlddl/cig/eco/org. October 5, 2001)†. There are however optimistic views that Canada, because of its inventiveness, skilled workforce, economic efficiencies and political stability, plays above its weight as a competitive economy and cannot therefore be dismissed as purely a branch plant economy. In general branch plants continue to contribute significantly better employment opportunities. The following are just a few sample opinions on the branch plant phenomena from the world’s leading business investment specialists: â€Å"Foreign direct investment is not just a source of capital; it creates jobs and helps us acquire leading-edge technology (http://www.Entrepreneurstrategist/figure/nnt/odb.html October 11, 2001)†. â€Å"Transnational corporations strengthen our economy, they help to create an exciting and innovative business environment for foreign investors to consider (http://www.Entrepreneurstrategist/figure/nnt/odb.html October 11, 2001)†. â€Å"Twenty years ago, many foreign governments saw foreign corporations as part of the development  problem. Today they see them as part of the solution (http://www.Unitednationsstatistics/worlddl/cig/eco/org. October 5, 2001.)†. â€Å"Canada has had and will continue to have a huge deficit in manufactured goods unless dramatic changes are implemented. One third of the finished products consumed by Canadians are manufactured somewhere either than Canada (Laxer 115)†. â€Å"Year after year Canada has always finished with a deficit in this sector. Without the surplus of our primary product exports, pulp and paper, lumber and oil our ability as Canadians to maintain a high standard of living would ultimately vanish (http://emerald.atkinson.yorku.ca/lspace35/2001y/pols3580/schedule.nsf)†. If Canada wants to foster technological literacy and enjoy the economic, social and intellectual well being in the long term it is imperative to institute an aggressive research and development program of its own. It may initially experience trade deficits, a declining share of total world exports, fewer job creations, and a decreasing industrial and technological capability, however these are just short term problems. If the country chooses to remain idle it will see an outflow of talent it cannot afford to lose. â€Å"Control of end products brings with it control of the chain innovation for all the machinery and parts  and components that go into the end product (Laxer 128)†. The net effect is that Canada would not control its own economic destiny because of invisible inflows or imports of new technologies. Canada would be at the mercy of decisions taken in the corporate interest of multinational enterprises rather than in the interest of the region or the national interest of the country. Finally, I do not believe the previous and current auto trade arrangement Canada has with the United States is not undermining Canadian regional development because we have gained considerably in the economic sector with the Auto pact of 1965, the free trade agreement and the North American Free Trade agreement. The auto industry is already 95 percent owned by the American companies and these agreements have not encouraged increased American content because the United States would have had a firm hold on the North American auto industry regardless if any of the above agreements were signed. These agreements helped Canada salvage some economic growth and prosperity. In the future, Canada should be extremely cautious when negotiating any free trade auto trading agreements given that the auto pact of 1965 is an excellent example of the potential disastrous effects of these agreements in an environment saturated with branch plant economies.

The First Battle of Ypres During World War I

The First Battle of Ypres was fought October 19 to November 22, 1914, during ​World War I (1914-1918).  The Commanders on each side were as follows: Allies Field Marshal Sir John FrenchGeneral Joseph JoffreKing Albert I of Belgium Germany Chief of the General Staff Erich von FalkenhaynField Marshal Albrecht, Duke of Wà ¼rttembergGeneral Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavaria Battle Background After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Germany implemented the Schlieffen Plan. Updated in 1906, this plan called for German troops to swing through Belgium with the goal of encircling French forces along the Franco-German border and winning a quick victory. With France defeated, troops could be moved east for a campaign against Russia. Put into operation, the early stages of the plan were largely successful during the Battle of the Frontiers and the German cause was further bolstered by a stunning victory over the Russians at Tannenberg in late-August. In Belgium, the Germans pushed back the small Belgian Army and defeated the French at the Battle of Charleroi as well as the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) at Mons. Retreating south, the BEF and French forces finally succeeded in checking the German advance at the First Battle of the Marne in early September. Halted in their advance, the Germans withdrew to a line behind the Aisne River. Counterattacking at the First Battle of the Aisne, the Allies had little success and took heavy losses. Stalemated on this front, both sides began the Race to the Sea as they attempted to outflank each other. Moving north and west, they extended the front to the English Channel. As both sides sought an advantage, they clashed in Picardy, Albert, and Artois. Ultimately reaching the coast, the Western Front became a continuous line stretching to the Swiss frontier. Setting the Stage Having moved north, the BEF, led by Field Marshal Sir John French, began arriving near the Belgian town of Ypres on October 14. A strategic location, Ypres was the last obstacle between the Germans and the key Channel ports of Calais and Boulogne-sur-Mer. Conversely, an Allied breakthrough near the town would allow them to sweep across the relatively flat terrain of Flanders and threaten key German supply lines. Coordinating with General Ferdinand Foch, who was overseeing French forces on the BEFs flanks, French desired to go on the offensive and attack east toward Menin. Working with Foch, the two commanders hoped to isolate the German III Reserve Corps, which was advancing from Antwerp, before swinging southeast to a position along the Lys River from which they could strike the flank of the main German line. Unaware that large elements of Albrecht, Duke of Wà ¼rttembergs Fourth Army and Rupprecht, Crown Prince of Bavarias Sixth Army were approaching from the east, French ordered his command forward. Moving west, Fourth Army possessed several new large formations of reserve troops which included many recently enlisted students. Despite the relative inexperience of his men, Falkenhayn ordered Albrecht to isolate Dunkirk and Ostend regardless of the casualties sustained. Having achieved this, he was to turn south towards Saint-Omer. To the south, Sixth Army received a directive to prevent the Allies from shifting troops north while also preventing them from forming a solid front. On October 19, the Germans began attacking and pushed back the French. At this time, French was still bringing the BEF into position as its seven infantry and three cavalry divisions were responsible for thirty-five miles of front running from Langemarck south around Ypres to the La Bassee Canal. The Fighting Begins Under the direction of Chief of the General Staff Erich von Falkenhayn, German forces in Flanders began attacking from the coast to south of Ypres. In the north, the Belgians fought a desperate battle along the Yser which ultimately saw them hold the Germans after flooding the area around Nieuwpoort. Further south, Frenchs BEF came under heavy attack around and below Ypres. Striking the Lieutenant General Horace Smith-Dorriens II Corps on October 20, the Germans assaulted the area between Ypres and Langemarck. Though desperate, the British situation near the town improved with the arrival of General Douglas Haigs I Corps. On October 23, pressure on the British III Corps in the south increased and they were forced to fall back two miles. A similar movement was required of General Edmund Allenbys Cavalry Corps. Badly outnumbered and lacking sufficient artillery, the BEF survived due to its proficiency in rapid rifle fire. Aimed rifle fire from the veteran British soldiers was so fast that often the Germans believed they were encountering machine guns. Heavy German attacks continued until the end of October with the British inflicting heavy losses as brutal battles were fought over small patches of territory such as Polygon Woods east of Ypres. Though holding, Frenchs forces were badly stretched and were only reinforced by troops arriving from India. Bloody Flanders Renewing the offensive, General Gustav Hermann Karl Max von Fabeck attacked with an ad hoc force comprised of XV Corps, II Bavarian Corps, 26th Division, and the 6th Bavarian Reserve Division on October 29. Focused on a narrow front and supported by 250 heavy guns, the assault moved forward along the Menin Road towards Gheluvelt. Engaging the British, fierce fighting ensued over the next few days as the two sides struggled for Polygon, Shrewsbury, and Nuns Woods. Breaking through to Gheluvelt, the Germans were finally halted after the British plugged the breach with hastily-assembled forces from the rear. Frustrated by the failure at Gheluvelt, Fabeck shifted south to the base of the Ypres salient. Attacking between Wytschaete and Messines, the Germans succeeded in taking both towns and the nearby ridge after heavy back-and-forth fighting. The assault was finally halted on November 1 with French assistance after British troops rallied near Zandvoorde. After a pause, the Germans made a final push against Ypres on November 10. Again attacking along the Menin Road, the brunt of the assault fell on the battered British II Corps. Stretched to the limit, it was forced from their front lines but fell back on a series of strong points. Holding, British forces succeeded in sealing a breach in their lines at Noone Bosschen. The days effort saw the Germans gain a stretch of the British lines running from the Menin Road to Polygon Wood. After a heavy bombardment of the area between Polygon Wood and Messines on November 12, German troops again struck along the Menin Road. Though gaining some ground, their efforts went unsupported and the advance was contained by the next day. With their divisions badly mauled, many of Frenchs commanders believed the BEF to be in crisis should the Germans attack again in strength. Though German attacks did continue over the next few days, they were largely minor and were repulsed. With his army spent, Albrecht ordered his men to dig in on November 17. Fighting flickered for another five days before quieting for the winter. The Aftermath A critical victory for the Allies, the First Battle of Ypres saw the BEF sustain 7,960 killed, 29,562 wounded, and 17,873 missing, while the French incurred between 50,000 and 85,000 casualties of all types. To the north, the Belgians took 21,562 casualties during the campaign. German losses for their efforts in Flanders totaled 19,530 killed, 83,520 wounded, 31,265 missing. Many of the German losses were sustained by the reserve formations that had been comprised of students and other youths. As a result, their loss was dubbed the Massacre of the Innocents of Ypres. With winter approaching, both sides began digging in and constructing the elaborate trench systems that would characterize the front for the remainder of the war. The Allied defense at Ypres ensured that the war in the West would not be over quickly as the Germans desired. Fighting around the Ypres salient would resume in April 1915 with the Second Battle of Ypres. Sources First World War: First Battle of YpresHistory of War: First Battle of Ypres

Indirectness in Communication Definition and Examples

In disciplines that include conversation analysis, communication studies, and speech-act theory, indirectness is a  way of conveying a message through hints, insinuations, questions, gestures, or circumlocutions. Contrast with directness. As a conversational strategy, indirectness is used more frequently in some cultures (for example,  Indian and Chinese) than in others (North American and Northern European), and by most accounts, it tends to be used more extensively by women than by men. Examples and Observations Robin Tolmach LakoffThe intention to communicate indirectly is reflected in the form of an utterance. Indirectness may (depending on its form) express avoidance of a confrontational speech act (say, an imperative like Go home!) in favor of a less intrusive form like a question (Why dont you go home?); or avoidance of the semantic content of the utterance itself (Go home! being replaced by an imperative that makes its point more circumspectly, like Be sure and close the door behind you when you leave; or both (Why dont you take these flowers to your mother on your way home?). It is possible to be indirect in several ways and to various degrees. Language-Related Cultural Themes Muriel Saville-TroikeWhere directness or indirectness are cultural themes, they are always language-related. As defined in speech-act theory, direct acts are those where surface form matches interactional function, as Be quiet! used as a command, versus an indirect Its getting noisy in here or I cant hear myself think, but other units of communication must also be considered.Indirectness may be reflected in routines for offering and refusing or accepting gifts or food, for instance.. Visitors from the Middle East and Asia have reported going hungry in England and the United States because of a misunderstanding of this message; when offered food, many have politely refused rather than accept directly, and it was not offered again. Speakers and Listeners Jeffrey Sanchez-BurksBesides referring to how a speaker conveys a message, indirectness also affects how a listener interprets the messages of others. For example, a listener can infer a meaning that goes beyond what is explicitly stated, which can be independent of whether the speaker intends to be direct or indirect. The Importance of Context Adrian AkmaijanWe sometimes speak indirectly; that is, we sometimes intend to perform one communicative act by means of performing another communicative act. For example, it would be quite natural to say My car has a flat tire to a gas station attendant, with the intention that he repair the tire: in this case we are requesting the hearer to do something... How does a hearer know if a speaker is speaking indirectly as well as directly? [T]he answer is contextual appropriateness. In the above case, it would be contextually inappropriate to be only reporting a flat tire at a gas station. In contrast, if a police officer asks why a motorists car is illegally parked, a simple report of a flat tire would be a contextually appropriate response. In the latter circumstance, the hearer (the police officer) would certainly not take the speakers words as a request to fix the tire... A speaker can use the very same sentence to convey quite different messages depending on the context. This is the problem of indirection. The Importance of Culture Peter TrudgillIt is possible that indirectness is used more in societies which are, or which have been until recently, heavily hierarchical in structure. If you want to avoid giving offense to people in authority over you, or if you want to avoid intimidating people lower in the social hierarchy than yourself, then indirectness may be an important strategy. It is possible, too, that the more frequent use by women in western societies of indirectness in conversation is due to the fact that women have traditionally had less power in these societies. Gender Issues: Directness and Indirectness in the Workplace Jennifer J. PeckDirectness and indirectness are encoded by linguistic features and enact competitive and cooperative meanings respectively. Men tend to use more features associated with directness, which inhibits contributions from other speakers. Indirectness strategies encode collaboration and their use encourages others voices into the discourse. Some linguistic forms that encode inclusiveness and collaboration are inclusive pronouns (we, us, lets, shall we), modal verbs (could, might, may), and modalizers (perhaps, maybe). Directness involves egocentric pronouns (I, me), and absence of modalizers. Indirectness strategies are common in all-female talk when the talk encodes meanings of collaboration and cooperation. These features, however, are routinely denigrated in many workplace and business settings. For instance, a female manager in banking who modalizes and uses inclusiveness strategies, beginning a proposal with I think maybe we should consider... is challenged by a man say ing Do you know or dont you? Another woman commences her recommendation in an academic meeting with Perhaps it would be a good idea if we thought about doing... and is interrupted by a man who says Can you get to the point? Is it possible for you to do that? (Peck, 2005b)... Women appear to internalize male constructions of their performances and describe their communication strategies in business settings as unclear, and vague and say that they dont get to the point (Peck 2005b). Benefits of Indirectness Deborah Tannen[George P.] Lakoff identifies two benefits of indirectness: defensiveness and rapport. Defensiveness refers to a speakers preference not to go on record with an idea in order to be able to disclaim, rescind, or modify it if it does not meet with a positive response. The rapport benefit of indirectness results from the pleasant experience of getting ones way not because one demanded it (power) but because the other person wanted the same thing (solidarity). Many researchers have focused on the defensive or power benefit of indirectness and ignored the payoff in rapport or solidarity.The payoffs of indirectness in rapport and self-defense correspond to the two basic dynamics that motivate communication: the coexisting and conflicting human needs for involvement and independence. Since any show of involvement is a threat to independence, and any show of independence is a threat to involvement, indirectness is the life raft of communication, a way to float on top of a situa tion instead of plunging in with nose pinched and coming up blinking.Through indirectness, we give others an idea of what we have in mind, testing the interactional waters before committing too much—a natural way of balancing our needs with the needs of others. Rather than blurt out ideas and let them fall where they may, we send out feelers, get a sense of others ideas and their potential reaction to ours, and shape our thoughts as we go. Multiple Subtopics and Fields of Study Michael LempertIndirectness borders on and bleeds into many topics, including euphemism, circumlocution, metaphor, irony, repression, parapraxis. What is more, the topic.. has received attention in diverse fields, from linguistics to anthropology to rhetoric to communication studies... [M]uch of the literature on indirectness has remained in close orbit around speech-act theory, which has privileged reference and predication and has led to a narrow focus on pragmatic ambiguity (indirect performativity) in sentence-sized units.

An Artist s Metamorphosis Art - 886 Words

An Artist’s Metamorphosis Art has always been a part of my life for as long I can remember. Art class was what I anxiously looked forward to in grade school. I recall the sadness that I would experience when my teacher did not pick my coloring sheet to be put on the wall of my second grade classroom, but I also remember the immense pride I experienced when I discovered that my seahorse sculpture had been picked to be put in the Zane Grey museum in the third grade. I participated in Chalk On the Walk every year. I loved it so much that I even had a chalkboard wall painted in my bedroom. My dad would even lift me up onto his large shoulders so that I could draw on the parts of the wall that my little arms could not yet reach. I remember drawing a series of pictures, marching down the street with childish conviction, and selling my drawings to anyone who would buy them for a quarter a piece. When I look back, I realize those drawings certainly were not as amazing as I believed. The people who had bought those aw ful drawings were just trying to be nice to a cute little child. Nevertheless, it started a confidence and dedication that eventually led to who I am today. When children are asked what they want to be when they grow up, it is not uncommon to hear that they want to be an artist, a singer, or even an astronaut. Once children grow older, most of them tend to sway from their original choice, whether it be from growing up or finding incompatibilities with their interests.Show MoreRelatedAn Analysis Of Landscape With The Fall Of Icarus1688 Words   |  7 Pagesrespond to these works, which provide an insight into life during certain periods of time. For instance, Ovid’s narrative poem, ‘Metamorphosis’ 8 CE, depicts the dangers for a man to deviate from the natural order. Whereas, Pieter Bruegel’s converted art piece, ‘Landscape with the Fall of Icarus’ c. 1560, emphasises the sustenance of work. W.H. 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What accelerates and counteracts global warming Free Essays

Global warming is the worst challenge facing the world in the 21st century. Since the second half of the 20th century, there has been sudden increase in global temperature leading to global warming effect. Increased human activities and natural activities have contributed to increase global warming. We will write a custom essay sample on What accelerates and counteracts global warming? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Global warming has had various negative effects in the world including melting of polar ice and rise in sea levels, changes in weather pattern with prolonged drought and torrents of rain, disappearance of species, and many others. One of the main factors that have contributed to global warming is release of green house gases to the atmosphere. Release of gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrite oxide, and others has contributed to green house effect leading to global warming. Although green house gases has been cited as the main source of global warming, there are other minor sources which over the time has led to   substantial increase in global temperature. However, there are alternative factors counteracting global warming effects which include aerosols and soot, solar variation, and many others. Alternative causes of global warming The most common indicator used to indicate global warming is the change in average global temperature at the near earth’s surface.   Between 1860 and 1900 it is recorded that the earth surface temperature increased by  Ã‚   0.75oC which is approximately 1.35oF. Since 1979, the global temperature at the lower trosphere has recorded an increase of more than 0.22oC. Before 1850, it is believed that temperature was relatively stable for more than two thousands years and therefore it is the increase in human activities especially industrialization that has led to increase in global temperature. According to recent records, 2005 was recorded as the warmest year ever since the scientific world started keeping reliable records. The main factor contributing to increased global temperature has been release of green house gases to the atmosphere (Pierce and Adams, 2009). It is believed that gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrite oxide, nitrogen dioxide and others leads to green house effects which increases global temperature. While green house gases contribute to global warming effects, it is believed that there are factors which had previously been thought to cause global warming but counteract global warming effects. Although their contribution may be minimal and difficult to notice, these factors can led to substantial cooling of the earth over a long period of time. Let us look at some of these factors including aerosols and soot which counteract global warming and solar variation which may accelerates global warming Aerosols and soot Aerosols and soot contribute to global cooling through global dimming. This is an effect in which there is gradual reduction in the range of direct irradiance to the earth that greatly counteracts global warming effect. This phenomenon, which has been studied since 1960 evidence that global dimming, can contribute to cooling of the earth over a long period of time.   Global dimming is mainly caused by aerosols which are produced through volcanic activities and other emissions like sulfur dioxide (Pierce and Adams, 2009). Aerosols produce a cooling effect through increase of reflection of some of the incoming sunlight.   Ã‚  Through scattering and absorbing of the solar radiation, aerosols have also been shown to have indirect effects on the net radiation budget. For example sulfate aerosols have been found to form cloud condensation nuclei which lead to clouds having smaller could droplets.   The formed clouds have been shown to reflect solar radiation when compared to clouds with fewer and large droplets. Soot can lead to cool or warm effect on the globe depending on its state whether airborne or deposition. Soot aerosols in the atmosphere absorb solar radiation thereby cooling the earth since solar radiation heats the atmosphere. However, soot deposited at the glaciers has been shown to heat the earth surfaces.   Aerosols have more pronounced effects in the tropical and sub-tropical regions especially in Asia. How to cite What accelerates and counteracts global warming?, Papers